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Microbes tested with blue light disinfection

The below long list of microbes have been tested with blue light disinfection in peer-reviewed research papers. Typically the tests have been done with generic light sources, using one blue wavelength. For results with Spectral Blue MWHI technology, please see the section 'Laboratory tests'.

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Microbe Type Wave-length [nm] Median dose / log-level [J/cm2] (article group 1) Radiant exposure [J/cm2] (article group 2) % reduction (article group 2) 90% reduction dose [J/cm2] (article group 3: viruses) Ref. Notes
Acinetobacter baumannii Gram-negative bacteria 400 16.7 Halstead et al. 2016
Acinetobacter baumannii Gram-negative bacteria 405 14.0 Maclean et al. 2009, Ramakrishnan et al. 2014
Acinetobacter baumannii Gram-negative bacteria 415 17.6 Zhang et al. 2014
Acinetobacter baumannii Gram-negative bacteria 405 144–270 99.99–99.9999% Leanse et al. 2018, Shehatou et al. 2019, Wozniak et al. 2019
adenovirus (dsDNA) non-enveloped viruses 420 29 Terrosi et al. 2021 Riboflavin present in test*: yes
Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans Gram-negative bacteria 405 60 49.7% Al Hamzi et al. 2019
Aggregatibacter actinomycetem. Gram-negative bacteria 460 30.0 Cieplik et al. 2014
Aspergillus flavus Fungi 405 540 <90% Leanse et al. 2021
Aspergillus fumigatus Fungi 405 540 <90% Leanse et al. 2021
Bacillus atrophaeus Gram-positive bacteria 470 110.2 De Lucca et al. 2012
Bacillus cereus Gram-positive bacteria 405 93.5 Maclean et al. 2013, Kumar et al. 2015
Bacillus cereus Gram-positive bacteria 405 50 99.9% Lu et al. 2020
Bacillus cereus spores Gram-positive bacteria 405 542.9 Maclean et al. 2013
Bacillus megaterium spores Gram-positive bacteria 405 638.9 Maclean et al. 2013
Bacillus subtilis Gram-positive bacteria 408 69.0 Hoenes et al. 2015
Bacillus subtilis Gram-positive bacteria 451 100.0 Hoenes et al. 2015
Bacillus subtilis spores Gram-positive bacteria 405 676.5 Maclean et al. 2013
BCoV (ssRNA, coronavirus) lipid-enveloped viruses 401 29 Zavestovskaya et al. 2021 Riboflavin present in test*: yes
BCoV (ssRNA, coronavirus) lipid-enveloped viruses 405 57.5-96 Lau et al. 2021 Riboflavin present in test*: no
Campylobacter jejuni Gram-negative bacteria 405 3.4 Murdoch et al. 2010
Campylobacter jejuni Gram-negative bacteria 463 24 99.81% Meurer et al. 2020
Campylobacter jejuni Gram-negative bacteria 405 24 81.82% Meurer et al. 2020
Candida albicans Yeasts 450 360 >80% Dong et al. 2020
Candida albicans Yeasts 405–415 50–108 >80–99.9999% Dong et al. 2020, Shehatou et al. 2019, Leanse et al. 2020
Candida vaginitis Yeasts 470 360 23.44% Wang et al. 2020
Candida vaginitis Yeasts 405–415 225 >99.9% Wang et al. 2020
Chlostridium difficile Gram-positive bacteria 405 13.0 Maclean et al. 2013
Chlostridium difficile spores Gram-positive bacteria 405 251.1 Maclean et al. 2013, Moorhead et al. 2016
Clostridium perfringens Gram-positive bacteria 405 10.2 Maclean et al. 2009
Corynebacterium striatum Gram-positive bacteria 405 120.6 McDonald et al. 2013
Cronobacter sakazakii Gram-negative bacteria 415 240 99.999999% Chu et al. 2019
Elizabethkingia meningoseptica Gram-negative bacteria 400 8.0 Halstead et al. 2016
encephalomyocarditis virus (ssRNA) non-enveloped viruses 405 (blue + white) 178 Rathnasinghe et al. 2021 Riboflavin present in test*: unknown
Enterobacter cloacae complex Gram-negative bacteria 400 92.3 Halstead et al. 2016
Enterococcus faecalis Gram-positive bacteria 405 96.0 Maclean et al. 2009, McDonald et al. 2013, Lui et al. 2016
Enterococcus faecalis Gram-positive bacteria 430 190.0 Lui et al. 2016
Enterococcus faecalis Gram-positive bacteria 455 410.0 Lui et al. 2016
Enterococcus faecium Gram-positive bacteria 400 348.4 Halstead et al. 2016
Enterococcus faecium Gram-positive bacteria 405 540 99.99% Shehatou et al. 2019
Enterococcus moraviensis Gram-positive bacteria 405 200 90 % Hessling et al. 2020
Enterococcus moraviensis Gram-positive bacteria 450 750 90 % Hessling et al. 2020
Enterococcus Spp. Gram-positive bacteria 405 360 99.999% Shehatou et al. 2019
Escherichia coli Gram-negative bacteria 400 46.3 Halstead et al. 2016
Escherichia coli Gram-negative bacteria 405 75.6 Lui et al. 2016, DH5α, Rhodes et al. 2016
Escherichia coli Gram-negative bacteria 408 156.7 Hoenes et al. 2015
Escherichia coli Gram-negative bacteria 415 60.0 Lipovsky et al. 2010
Escherichia coli Gram-negative bacteria 425 56.1 Kim et al. 2013
Escherichia coli Gram-negative bacteria 430 100.0 Lui et al. 2016
Escherichia coli Gram-negative bacteria 445 540 <90% Halstead et al. 2019
Escherichia coli Gram-negative bacteria 450 137.6 Keshishyan et al. 2015
Escherichia coli Gram-negative bacteria 451 500.0 Hoenes et al. 2015
Escherichia coli Gram-negative bacteria 455 219.3 Lipovsky et al. 2010, Lui et al. 2016
Escherichia coli Gram-negative bacteria 461 309.5 Ghate et al. 2013, Ghate et al. 2015b
Escherichia coli Gram-negative bacteria 405–420 59–603 90–99.999% Sabino et al. 2019, dos Anjos et al. 2020, dos Anjos et al. 2019, Halstead et al. 2019, Halstead et al. 2019, Plavskii et al. 2018, Leanse et al. 2018
feline calcivirus (ssRNA) non-enveloped viruses 405 82-719 Tomb et al. 2016 Riboflavin present in test*: yes and no
feline infectious peritonitis virus (ssRNA, coronavirus) lipid-enveloped viruses 405 10.8-31.8 Gardner et al. 2021 Riboflavin present in test*: yes and no
Fusarium oxysporum Fungi 405 540 <90% Leanse et al. 2021
Fusobacterium nucleatum Gram-negative bacteria 450 55.3 Feuerstein et al. 2005
Fusobacterium nucleatum, ss. Nucleatum Gram-negative bacteria 455 17.5 Fontana et al. 2015
Fusobacterium nucleatum, ss. polymorphum Gram-negative bacteria 455 4.0 Fontana et al. 2015
Fusobacterium nucleatum, ss. polymorphum Gram-negative bacteria 465 361.5 Feuerstein, Persman and Weiss 2004
Fusobacterium nucleatum, ss. vincenti Gram-negative bacteria 455 9.8 Fontana et al. 2015
Fusobacterium periodonticum Gram-negative bacteria 455 10.3 Fontana et al. 2015
HCoV-229E (ssRNA, coronavirus) lipid-enveloped viruses 405 55 Enwemeka et al. 2021 Riboflavin present in test*: yes
HCoV-229E (ssRNA, coronavirus) lipid-enveloped viruses 405 pulsed 89 Lau et al. 2021 Riboflavin present in test*: yes
Helicobacter pylori Gram-negative bacteria 405 5.3 Ganz et al. 2005, Hamblin et al. 2005
herpes simplex virus Type 1 (dsDNA) lipid-enveloped viruses 445 112 Zupin et al. 2018 Riboflavin present in test*: unknown
influenza A virus (ssRNA) lipid-enveloped viruses 405 23.5 Rathnasinghe et al. 2021 Riboflavin present in test*: unknown
Klebsiella pneumoniae Gram-negative bacteria 400 74.8 Halstead et al. 2016
Klebsiella pneumoniae Gram-negative bacteria 405 46.2 Maclean et al. 2009, Ramakrishnan et al. 2014, McDonald et al. 2013
Klebsiella pneumoniae Gram-negative bacteria 410 108–1903 66.1–100% dos Anjos et al. 2020, Shehatou et al. 2019, dos Anjos et al. 2020
Lactobacillus plantarum Gram-positive bacteria 405 374.0 Kumar et al. 2016
Lactobacillus plantarum Gram-positive bacteria 460 1121.0 Kumar et al. 2016
Legionella rubrilucens Gram-negative bacteria 450–470 300–500 >99.999% Schmid et al. 2019
Leuconostoc mesenteroides Gram-positive bacteria 470 257.1 De Lucca et al. 2012
Listeria ivanovii Gram-positive bacteria 405 44.9 Endarko et al. 2012
Listeria monocytogenes Gram-positive bacteria 400 117.4 Endarko et al. 2012
Listeria monocytogenes Gram-positive bacteria 405 45.9 Endarko et al. 2012, Murdoch et al. 2012, McKenzie et al. 2014, Kumar et al. 2015
Listeria monocytogenes Gram-positive bacteria 410 100.2 Endarko et al. 2012
Listeria monocytogenes Gram-positive bacteria 415 241.8 Endarko et al. 2012
Listeria monocytogenes Gram-positive bacteria 420 493.2 Endarko et al. 2012
Listeria monocytogenes Gram-positive bacteria 430 648.9 Endarko et al. 2012
Listeria monocytogenes Gram-positive bacteria 440 1120.9 Endarko et al. 2012
Listeria monocytogenes Gram-positive bacteria 450 3082.5 Endarko et al. 2012
Listeria monocytogenes Gram-positive bacteria 461 263.1 Ghate et al. 2015b, Ghate et al. 2013
Listeria monocytogenes Gram-positive bacteria 460–470 604.8 >99.999% Hyun et al. 2021
Listeria seeligeri Gram-positive bacteria 405 55.9 Endarko et al. 2012
MERS-CoV (ssRNA, coronavirus) lipid-enveloped viruses 425 18.8 Stasko et al., 2021 Riboflavin present in test*: yes
Micrococcus sp. Gram-positive bacteria 405 24.9 McDonald et al. 2013
Moraxella catarrhalis Gram-negative bacteria 405 216 99.99% Liu et al. 2020
murine leukaemia virus (ssRNA) lipid-enveloped viruses 420-430 reduction Richardson et al. 2005 Riboflavin present in test*: yes
murine norovirus non-enveloped viruses 408 (cw laser) 491-1976 Kingsley et al. 2018 Riboflavin present in test*: yes
Mycobacterium fortuitum Gram-positive bacteria 405–413 240–583.5 93–99.999% Al-Shammary et al. 2020, dos Anjos et al. 2020
Mycobacterium smegmatis Gram-positive bacteria 405 67.8 Guffey et al. 2013
Mycobacterium terrae Gram-positive bacteria 405 57.6 Murdoch et al. 2012
Neisseria gonorrhoeae Gram-negative bacteria 405 45–108 99.99999% Wang et al. 2017, Wang et al. 2019
phi 6 (dsRNA) lipid-enveloped viruses 405 400 Vatter et al. 2021 Riboflavin present in test*: no
phi 6 (dsRNA) lipid-enveloped viruses 455 2130 Vatter et al. 2021 Riboflavin present in test*: no
phi C31 (dsDNA) non-enveloped viruses 405 113-1021 Tomb et al. 2014 Riboflavin present in test*: yes and no
Phi6 Lipid-enveloped viruses 405 1400 99.9% Hessling et al. 2020
Porphyromonas gingivalis Gram-negative bacteria 405 40.5 Hope et al. 2013
Porphyromonas gingivalis Gram-negative bacteria 405 60 64.5% Gelpi et al. 2015
Porphyromonas gingivalis Gram-negative bacteria 425 523.6 Kim et al. 2013
Porphyromonas gingivalis Gram-negative bacteria 450 47.0 Feuerstein et al. 2005
Porphyromonas gingivalis Gram-negative bacteria 455 48.8 Fontana et al. 2015
Porphyromonas gingivalis Gram-negative bacteria 465 94.0 Feuerstein, Persman and Weiss 2004
Prevotella intermedia Gram-negative bacteria 455 14.5 Fontana et al. 2015
Prevotella melaninogenica Gram-negative bacteria 455 7.2 Fontana et al. 2015
Prevotella nigrescens Gram-negative bacteria 455 9.8 Fontana et al. 2015
Propionibacterium acnes Gram-positive bacteria 405 13.3 Hamblin et al. 2005
Propionibacterium acnes Gram-positive bacteria 414 45.0 Ashkenazi et al. 2003
Propionibacterium acnes Gram-positive bacteria 450 pulsed 20–45 100 % Bumah et al. 2020, Bumah et al. 2020
Proteus vulgaris Gram-negative bacteria 405 30.6 Maclean et al. 2009
Prototheca Spp. Algae 410 137–320 99–99.0% dos Anjos et al. 2019
Pseudomonas aeruginosa Gram-negative bacteria 400 17.8 Halstead et al. 2016
Pseudomonas aeruginosa Gram-negative bacteria 405 15.3 Guffey and Wilborn 2006, Maclean et al. 2009, Kumar et al. 2015, Ramakrishnan et al. 2014, McDonald et al. 2013
Pseudomonas aeruginosa Gram-negative bacteria 415 14.0 Dai et al. 2013, Amin et al. 2016
Pseudomonas aeruginosa Gram-negative bacteria 450 142.7 Keshishyan et al. 2015
Pseudomonas aeruginosa Gram-negative bacteria 470 69.1 Guffey and Wilborn 2006, De Lucca et al. 2012, De Lucca et al. 2012
Pseudomonas aeruginosa Gram-negative bacteria 470 603.44 65 % Galo et al. 2022
Pseudomonas aeruginosa Gram-negative bacteria 405–415 10–463 >90–100% Al-Shammary et al. 2020, Sabino et al. 2019, dos Anjos et al. 2020, Fila et al. 2018, Leanse et al. 2018, Shehatou et al. 2019, Leanse et al. 2020
Pseudomonas fluorescens Gram-negative bacteria 400–420 99–420 >99–100% Angarano et al. 2020, Angarano et al. 2020, Hoenes et al. 2021
Pseudomonas fluorescens Gram-negative bacteria 450–470 500–604.8 90–99.9% Hoenes et al. 2021, Hyun et al. 2021, Angarano et al. 2020
respiratory syncytial virus (ssRNA) lipid-enveloped viruses 420 29 Terrosi et al. 2021 Riboflavin present in test*: yes
Saccharomyces cerevisiae Yeasts 405 182 90 % Hoenes et al. 2018
Saccharomyces cerevisiae Yeasts 450 526 90 % Hoenes et al. 2018
Salmonella ‘Heidelberg’ Gram-negative bacteria 470 138.4 Bumah, Masson-Meyers and Enwemeka 2015b
Salmonella enterica Gram-negative bacteria 405 97.3 Endarko et al. 2012, Murdoch et al. 2010, Murdoch et al. 2012
Salmonella enteritidis Gram-negative bacteria 405 729 >99.9999 Keyvan et al. 2021
Salmonella Typhimurium Gram-negative bacteria 405 516.7 Kumar et al. 2015
Salmonella typhimurium Gram-negative bacteria 413 463.38 99.9% dos Anjos et al. 2020
Salmonella Typhimurium Gram-negative bacteria 461 917.3 Ghate et al. 2013, Ghate et al. 2015a
Salmonella Typhimurium Gram-negative bacteria 470 94.8 Bumah, Masson-Meyers and Enwemeka 2015b
SARS-CoV-1 (ssRNA, coronavirus) lipid-enveloped viruses 425 9.9 Stasko et al., 2021 Riboflavin present in test*: yes
SARS-CoV-2 Lipid-enveloped viruses 450–470 144 >99% Zupin et al. 2021
SARS-CoV-2 (ssRNA, coronavirus) lipid-enveloped viruses 420 29 Terrosi et al. 2021 Riboflavin present in test*: yes
SARS-CoV-2 (ssRNA, coronavirus) lipid-enveloped viruses 425 5-18.8 Stasko et al., 2021 Riboflavin present in test*: yes
SARS-CoV-2 (ssRNA, coronavirus) lipid-enveloped viruses 405 + blue/white 6.6 Biasin et al. 2021 Riboflavin present in test*: yes
SARS-CoV-2 (ssRNA, coronavirus) lipid-enveloped viruses 405 + blue/white 7.5 Rathnasinghe et al. 2021 Riboflavin present in test*: unknown
SARS-CoV-2 (ssRNA, coronavirus) lipid-enveloped viruses 410 + blue/white 6.5 de Santis et al. 2021 Riboflavin present in test*: yes
SARS-CoV-2 (ssRNA, coronavirus) lipid-enveloped viruses 450, 454, 470 reduction Zupin et al. 2021 Riboflavin present in test*: unknown
Serratia marcescens Gram-negative bacteria 405 169.6 McDonald et al. 2013
Shigella sonnei Gram-negative bacteria 405 89.5 Endarko et al. 2012, Murdoch et al. 2012
Staphylococcus aureus Gram-positive bacteria 400 16.5 Halstead et al. 2016, Maclean et al. 2008b
Staphylococcus aureus Gram-positive bacteria 405 35.9 Guffey and Wilborn 2006, Enwemeka et al. 2008, Maclean et al. 2009, Maclean et al. 2013, Kumar et al. 2016, Kumar et al. 2015, McKenzie et al. 2016, Maclean et al. 2008b
Staphylococcus aureus Gram-positive bacteria 410 21.4 Maclean et al. 2008b
Staphylococcus aureus Gram-positive bacteria 415 84.1 Maclean et al. 2008b, Lipovsky et al. 2010
Staphylococcus aureus Gram-positive bacteria 420 78.3 Maclean et al. 2008b
Staphylococcus aureus Gram-positive bacteria 425 929.0 Kim et al. 2013
Staphylococcus aureus Gram-positive bacteria 430 235.0 Maclean et al. 2008b
Staphylococcus aureus Gram-positive bacteria 450 390.0 Keshishyan et al. 2015
Staphylococcus aureus Gram-positive bacteria 455 360.4 Lipovsky et al. 2010
Staphylococcus aureus Gram-positive bacteria 461 150.7 Ghate et al. 2013
Staphylococcus aureus Gram-positive bacteria 470 58.3 Enwemeka et al. 2009, Guffey and Wilborn 2006, Bumah, Masson-Meyers and Enwemeka 2015b, Bumah et al. 2015a, Bumah et al. 2015a, Bumah, Masson-Meyers and Enwemeka 2015b, Bumah et al. 2013
Staphylococcus aureus Gram-positive bacteria 470 603.44 80 % Galo et al. 2020
Staphylococcus aureus Gram-positive bacteria 400–420 50–841 71–>99.999% Al-Shammary et al. 2020, Sabino et al. 2019, dos Anjos et al. 2020, Lu et al. 2020, Maclean et al. 2020, Makdoumi et al. 2019, Wu et al. 2018, Rapacka-Zdonczyk et al. 2019, Leanse et al. 2020, Shehatou et al. 2019
Staphylococcus aureus Gram-positive bacteria 450 pulsed 4.5–7.6 80–100% Bumah et al. 2020
Staphylococcus carnosus Gram-positive bacteria 405–440 70–270 90–99.9% Meurle et al. 2021, Hoenes et al. 2021
Staphylococcus carnosus Gram-positive bacteria 450–470 210–500 99–99.9% Sicks et al. 2020, Hoenes et al. 2021
Staphylococcus epidermidis Gram-positive bacteria 405 50–122 99–99.999% Lu et al. 2020, Shehatou et al. 2019
Staphylococcus epidermis Gram-positive bacteria 405 18.9 Maclean et al. 2009, Ramakrishnan et al. 2016, Ramakrishnan et al. 2014, McDonald et al. 2013
Stenotrophomonas maltophilia Gram-negative bacteria 400 15.0 Halstead et al. 2016
Streptococcus agalactiae Gram-positive bacteria 450 pulsed 22.8 5.5–11% Bumah et al. 2020
Streptococcus mutans Gram-positive bacteria 405 340–831 48–54% Mohamad et al. 2021
Streptococcus pyogenes Gram-positive bacteria 405 10.8 Maclean et al. 2009
Streptococcus pyogenes Gram-positive bacteria 405 36–50 99.99–99.999999% Lu et al. 2020, Shehatou et al. 2019
Trypanosoma cruzi Protozoa 405 270 >99% Jankowska et al. 2020
Tulane virus (ssRNA) non-enveloped viruses 405 reduction Kingsley et al. 2018 Riboflavin present in test*: yes and no
Vibrio parahaemolyticus Gram-negative bacteria 405 170.0 Kumar et al. 2016
Vibrio parahaemolyticus Gram-negative bacteria 460 717.0 Kumar et al. 2016
viral haemorrhagic septicaemia virus (ssRNA) non-enveloped viruses 405 114 Ho et al. 2020 Riboflavin present in test*: yes
zika virus (ssRNA) lipid-enveloped viruses 445 64 Zupin et al. 2018 Riboflavin present in test*: unknown

 

* Main review article number 3 (see below) discusses the presence of riboflavin in certain virus tests. A suspension containing riboflavin may contribute to the reduction of virus viability, as blue light can energize flavins and cause oxidation. The tests done with dry plates or suspensions not containing photo-sensitive compounds may therefore be more reliable.

Review articles used in compiling the list of microbe studies:

  1. Article group 1 (medium dosage / log level):
    M. Hessling, B. Spellerberg, K. Hoenes.
    Photoinactivation of bacteria by endogenous photosensitizers and exposure to visible light of different wavelengths – a review on existing data. FEMS Microbiology Letters, Volume 364, Issue 2, January 2017.
    https://doi.org/10.1093/femsle/fnw270
  2. Article group 2 (used radiant exposure + achieved % reduction):
    Leon G. Leanse, Carolina dos Anjos, Sana Mushtaq, Tianhong Dai.
    Antimicrobial blue light: A ‘Magic Bullet’ for the 21st century and beyond' Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews 180 (2022) 114057
    https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addr.2021.114057
  3. Article group 3 - viruses (90% reduction dose):
    Martin Hessling, Bernhard Lau and Petra Vatter.
    Review of Virus Inactivation by Visible Light
    https://www.mdpi.com/2304-6732/9/2/113/pdf
Last updated October 2022.